VI. History and Nature of Science; Science, Technology, and Social Perspectives, 11 Questions

● Nature of scientific methodology, inquiry, and knowledge

– Scientific methods

– Science process skills

– Experimental design

● Historical perspective

– Historical roots of science

– Overarching concepts

● Science, technology, and society

– Impact of science and technology on the environment and human affairs

– Management of natural resources

– Use of science and technology in daily life

– Issues associated with energy production, transmission and use, and management

– Issues associated with the production, storage, use, management, and disposal of consumer products

– Nuclear energy, nuclear power, nuclear waste

– Social, political, ethical, and economic issues arising from science and technology

What is the ``scientific method''?

  The scientific method is the best way yet discovered for winnowing the truth from lies and delusion. The simple version looks something like this:

• 1. Observe some aspect of the universe.
• 2. Invent a tentative description, called a hypothesis, that is consistent with what you have observed.
• 3. Use the hypothesis to make predictions.
• 4. Test those predictions by experiments or further observations and modify the hypothesis in the light of your results.
• 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until there are no discrepancies between theory and experiment and/or observation.

When consistency is obtained the hypothesis becomes a theory and provides a coherent set of propositions which explain a class of phenomena. A theory is then a framework within which observations are explained and predictions are made.

The great advantage of the scientific method is that it is unprejudiced: one does not have to believe a given researcher, one can redo the experiment and determine whether his/her results are true or false. The conclusions will hold irrespective of the state of mind, or the religious persuasion, or the state of consciousness of the investigator and/or the subject of the investigation. Faith, defined as  belief that does not rest on logical proof or material evidence, does not determine whether a scientific theory is adopted or discarded.

A theory is accepted not based on the prestige or convincing powers of the proponent, but on the results obtained through observations and/or experiments which anyone can reproduce: the results obtained using the scientific method are repeatable. In fact, most experiments and observations are repeated many times (certain experiments are not repeated independently but are repeated as parts of other experiments). If the original claims are not verified the origin of such discrepancies is hunted down and exhaustively studied.

What is the difference between a fact, a theory and a hypothesis?

In popular usage, a theory is just a vague and fuzzy sort of fact and a hypothesis is often used as a fancy synonym to `guess'. But to a scientist a theory is a conceptual framework that explains existing observations and predicts new ones. For instance, suppose you see the Sun rise. This is an existing observation which is explained by the theory of gravity proposed by Newton. This theory, in addition to explaining why we see the Sun move across the sky, also explains many other phenomena such as the path followed by the Sun as it moves (as seen from Earth) across the sky, the phases of the Moon, the phases of Venus, the tides, just to mention a few. You can today make a calculation and predict the position of the Sun, the phases of the Moon and Venus, the hour of maximal tide, all 200 years from now. The same theory is used to guide spacecraft all over the Solar System.

A hypothesis is a working assumption. Typically, a scientist devises a hypothesis and then sees if it ``holds water'' by testing it against available data (obtained from previous experiments and observations). If the hypothesis does hold water, the scientist declares it to be a theory.

Science Process Skills
Source: The American Association for the Advancement of Science

BASIC SKILLS

Observing

Using the 5 senses (see, hear, touch, smell, taste) to find out about objects and events, their characteristics, properties, differences, similarities, and changes

• Observations are recorded.

Classifying

Grouping or ordering objects or events according to similarities or differences in properties

• Lists, tables, or charts are generated.

Measuring

Comparing an unknown quantity with a known (metric units, time, student- generated frames of reference) - Observations are quantified using proper measuring devices and techniques

• Measurements are to be recorded in an orderly and systematic fashion with labeled units of measure. Charts, graphs, or tables can be generated manually or with computer software.

Inferring

Interpreting or explaining observations

• More than one inference may be presented to explain an observation.

Predicting

Forming an idea of an expected result - not a guess - but a belief of what will occur based upon present knowledge and understandings, observations and inferences

• A prediction should be followed by a written or oral explanation to clarify ideas and reveal any misconceptions or missing information.

Communicating

Using the written and spoken work, graphs, demonstrations, drawings, diagrams, or tables to transmit information and ideas to others

• To reflect the true nature of science, ideas must be shared.

Using Number Relationships

Applying numbers and their mathematical relationships to make decisions

• Numbers are basic to science - mathematical knowledge is applied.